The behavioural repertoires of wolves and dogs

An ethogram of a species is a catalogue of its species-typical behaviours. It is established by observing, for example, dogs or wolves long enough so that finally the list of recorded behavioural units will cover the entire behavioural repertoire of the species.

The list of behaviours and the pictures below show that the behavioural repertoires of wolves and dogs are very similar.

Interestingly, however, some behavioural elements may be missing if the wolves' behaviour is compared with the behaviour of dogs that look very different than wolves. The ethogram of Cavalier King Charles spaniels or Norfolk terriers, for example, contains less behaviours than that of Siberian huskies or Golden retrievers (Ziemen, 1972; Goodwin et al. 1997).

• Sleep

  to lie on the ground with the head down on the ground or on its foreleg and often its eyes closed

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Rest

  to lie on the ground with head held high or sitting or standing and looking around in a neutral posture

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Crawl

  to move slowly across something with the body close to the surface

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Walking

  to move along on foot, advancing by steps. Its tail hangs down in a neutral posture and maybe the wolf looks around without an apparent goal

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Trot

  to proceed briskly in a diagonal, two-beat gait in which the left rear and the right forelegs move together and vice versa

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Run

  to move quickly or rapidly at a full pace

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Wade

  to step in or through water not deep enough to swim

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Swim

  to propel itself in water by movement of the limbs and tail

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Jump

  to leave the surface with all four feet, horizontal or vertical, or jump against something not necessary on it

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Chase objects

  to paw with the front paw blowing leaves or to run after items like leaves, ravens, squirrels and so forth

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Rub on

  to press against, then slides along an object such as a fence, rock or a tree

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Sniffing

  to stand or walk around with the nose pointed down on the ground to smell or inhale through the nose

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Eating

  to take substances into the mouth and swallow, usually food

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Food beg

  to lick, nibble, pull or paw at an other individual's muzzle and lips. Often accompanied by ears back, roll over, tail wag and inguinal presentation

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Take food

  to take food from the feeding place and go away

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Regurgitate

  to bring undigested food up from the stomach to the mouth

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  very seltom

• Cache food

  to hide food, under leaves, snow, soil or other materials

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Dig up food

  to dig up a food item

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Pilfer food

  to take the food from another individual which ate at that time or short before on them

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Drinking

  To take in liquid by lapping or biting at the water

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Pee

  to urinate with its hind leg on the ground anywheren not especially on an object

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Defecate

  to evacuate solid waste and afterwards the hind paws are often scraped backwards on the ground

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Mark

  to urinate with the hind leg lifted up in the air mostly near or on bushes or on a tree

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Breeding pair

  Behaviour of Dogs

  sexually matured males and females

• Mark over

  to deliberately mark beside or on top of the urine mark of another individual

  Behaviour of Wolves

  only breeding pair, males and females

  Behaviour of Dogs

  sexually matured males and females

• Scent roll

  when encountering an odour, to put its nose into the smell, then slide down onto the shoulder, then onto one flank through the smell

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Eating own or same species scat

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Very seldom

  Behaviour of Dogs

  In dogs often, correlated with nutrition problem

• Eating scats of other species

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Dig

  to break up, overturn or remove especially earth or snow with the paws or nose

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Grooming

  to excitedly nip, lick or scratch the fur or skin occasionally the neck or rub under chin to press against, then rub across another wolf´s chest

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Greeting

  to interact in a friendly manner, ears back much tail wagging and lick the mouth. They orient to each others faces to lick, sniff it

  Behaviour of Wolves

  well distinctive

  Behaviour of Dogs

  only situational in dogs, weak till moderate distinctive

• Inspection

  to interact friendly, stand next to each other, rub on side by side, smell at other one put heads together and may lick, sniff and so on

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Wrestling

  if at least two individuals play together by maybe lying on each other and biting or chew the others mouth or the tail or leg, also the other wolf is wrestling

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Playing

  to run around another one, kick it, jump on them maybe snap or bite without enough pressure to cause injury at it, further perform an invited chase. Playing just occurs during relaxed situations.

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Ambush

  staring intently at another wolf in preparation for a surprise attack. The ambushing wolf is in a sphinx or a standing position

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Play Bow

  to lower the front part of the torso while keeping the hind part upright hold the tail normal and may wag it, jump around and maybe kick the other individual

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Seldom

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Very often

• Hide and Seek

  to invite chase with dodging behind obstacles. This is likely to occur with frequent change of directions around bushes, trees, rocks and the like, ultimately resulting in the individuals meeting face to face

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Lie friendly

  to lie on the back, wag the tail, maybe kick with the foreleg against another wolf

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Stand friendly

  stand with tail perpendicularly or above the plane of the back and wag it, ears pointed forward, while other individual approach

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Displace

  aggressor causes opponent to move away from a resource or goal

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Attack

  a running or jumping approach toward another one with tail, ears and sometimes hackles up, often bites at the neck or muzzle, forcing it on ground and holding it there

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Stand tall

  straighten up to full height and appearing as large as possible, legs are donnish, may include raised hackles, ears erect and tail perpendicularly or above the back

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Stand over

  to stand over opponent's body, or place the forepaws on the opponent and stand tall over them, or place the head on the opponent

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• T-position

  standing with the check in right angle to the lenght of the opponent's body, so that the position of the chest is frontal to the shoulder of the opponent, often with donnish legs, straighten up to full height, may include raised hackles, ears erect and tail perpendicularly or above the back

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Less frequently than dogs

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Very often

• Mob

  two or more individuals crowding around another wolf chase bite or wrestling with them in harassing manner. The mobbed animal is mostly submissive, like lie back or tries to flee

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Ride up

  to mount another one from behind or from side

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Crouch

  to lower the head, bent the legs, the back often arched and the tail between the legs. The wolf looks hunched and smaller

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Passive submission

  to lie on the back demonstrate the stomach and the tail between the legs. The ears directed backwards and close to the head and raises a hind leg for inguinal presentation

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Active submission

  the tail is tucked between hind legs sometimes wagging. Body posture is crouched. The ears directed backwards and close to the head. Maybe attempt to paw and lick the muzzle of the other individual, maybe pees at the same time

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Play submissive

  to play with the tail between the hind legs, often running away and snapping at the other one

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Neutral Approach

  to go in a relaxed manner forward within 2 m to another subject, maybe it does more or less ignore the subject

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Enthusiastic approach

  to go or run forward within 2 m to another subject until to reach the goal maybe pointing the ears forward and wag the tail

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Dominant approach

  to go forward within 2 m to another subject with the tail perpendicularly or above the plane of the back and the ears erects and pointed forward and head held high. Legs are donnish, composure is tensed

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Fearful approach

  to go slowly forward within 2 m to another subject, maybe ducked compsure, movement maybe in wavy line and sometimes stop and look directly the subject

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Curious approach

  to go forward within 2 m of another subject and looks at them when it is handling or eating food or an object

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Avoidance fear

  muscles are tensed, to keep away from an object or situation, often look stiff at the object, move fast back and forth, often tail tucked

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Ignore

  to refuse to notice or pay attention to the actions of others

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Flee

  to walk or run with tail tucked and body ducked away from other individual

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Leave

  to go away from another individual  in a neutral posture

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Follow

  to match speed and direction while walking or running behind another usually with two or three body lengths distance

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Chase

  to run after another to catch them

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Stalk

  to pursue another individual or prey by means of stealthy approach. The head is level with or lower than the top of the back with the ears directed forward. Usually starring intently at its stalking subject. The back is not arched and the tail not tucked

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Bite

  to move quickly forward and closing the jaws and the teeth on another, possibly accompanied by showing the teeth and ev growling and barking

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Muzzle bite

  to grab the muzzle of another individual with the own muzzle which can be either soft or with enough pressure to make the grabbed wolf whimper

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Seldom

• Jaw spar

  two individuals "fencing" with open jaws

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Less distinct and frequently than in wolves and

• Snapping

  to snap into the air with the flew up so that the teeth are visible

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Grab

  to grap another one quickly, suddenly or forcefully and hold on firmly

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Head shake

  with something in the jaw, the head vigorously shaken from side to side

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Howling

  to point the muzzle upward and forward and make a long wavering open-mouthed vocalisation like hauu

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Seldom (depends on bred)

• Growl

  to make a low, guttural, menacing sound sometimes with showing the teeth sounds like grrrrrr

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Wolves growl more often and show more nuances and a more distinct mimic

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Bark

  a short explosive outburst and coarse voice, sounds like wuf

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Very seldom, alert

  Behaviour of Dogs

  often, in different contexts and different sounds

• Whisper

  sounds like waawwaaa and often occurs if approached by someone. For example if somone approaches the animal and strokes it

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Seldom

• Whimper

  a high tough soft, intermittent and plaintive sound like hihihiii

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Less frequenlty than in dogs

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Very often

• Object manipulation with the mouth

  to sniff, leak, bite, chew or manipulate the object somehow with the mouth

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Object manipulation with the paw

  to kick, hold it down or manipulate the object somehow with the paw

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Guard

  to sit, lay or stand at the food without eating or at another object without any kinds of handling it

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Tug of war

  at least two animals hold of parts of an object or food item and pull against each other

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Approach object

  to go forward within 2 m to an object

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes

• Approach with object

  to carry an object within 2 m to a subject

  Behaviour of Wolves

  Yes

  Behaviour of Dogs

  Yes